Migrant smuggling and the violence question: evolving illicit migration markets for Cuban and Haitian refugees

Abstract  Comparing Cuban and Haitian migrant smuggling schemes, this article explores the relationship between violence and the social
organization of migrant smuggling, including the smuggling of refugees. Levels of violence, political repression, and ethnic
persecution in sending states provide an important context for understanding the origins and organization of this illicit
market. Examining the violent threats and acts directed at migrants en route, we argue that violence is not a necessary part
of the illicit market for unauthorized migration, attenuated by the social networks, cultural norms, and contractual relationships
in which it is embedded.